Skip to main content
Intended for healthcare professionals
Skip to main content
Restricted access
Research article
First published online April 24, 2014

Women’s descriptive representation in developed and developing countries

Abstract

Today there is a wealth of research on women’s legislative representation and the factors contributing to it. For example, proportional representation in large multi-member districts and an egalitarian political culture are commonly associated with high rates of women’s representation. However, in the developing world findings are less solid and there is little consensus on the salience of various explanatory variables (for example, political culture or electoral system type) on women’s descriptive representation. In this article, I explore the possibility that the divergent findings that characterise the discipline stem from the different dynamics at work in developed and developing countries. My results indicate that development by itself has a positive and significant impact on the percentage of female representatives. Development also interacts with other variables (for example, women’s participation in the workforce and quotas) in determining the level of women’s representation.

Get full access to this article

View all access and purchase options for this article.

References

Ballington Julie, Dahlerup Drude (2006) Gender quotas in post-conflict states: East Timor, Afghanistan, and Iraq. In: Drude Dahlerup (ed.) Women, Quotas, and Politics. New York: Routledge, pp.249–58.
Bauer Gretchen (2008) Electoral gender quotas for parliament in East and Southern Africa. International Feminist Journal of Politics 10(3): 347–67.
Bauer Gretchen, Britton Hannah E (2006) Women in African parliaments: A continental shift. In: Gretchen Bauer, Britton Hannah E (eds) Women in African Parliaments. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, pp.1–44.
Blaydes Lisa, Linzer Drew A (2008) The political economy of women’s support for fundamentalist Islam. World Politics 60(4): 576–609.
Burns Nancy, Schlozman Kay Lehman, Verba Sidney (2001) The Private Roots of Public Action: Gender, Equality, and Political Participation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Caul Miki (1999) Women’s representation in parliament: The role of political parties. Party Politics 5(1): 79–98.
Celis Karen, Child Sarah, Kantola Johanna, et al. (2008) Rethinking women’s substantive representation. Representation 44(2): 99–110.
Childs Sarah (2008) Women and British Party Politics: Descriptive, Substantive and Symbolic Representation. New York: Routledge.
Childs Sarah, Krook Mona L (2006) Should feminists give up on critical mass? A contingent yes. Politics and Gender 2(4): 522–30.
Dahlerup Drude, Leyenaar Monique (eds) (2013) Breaking Male Dominance in Old Democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Darcy Robert, Welch Susan, Clark Janet (1994) Women, Elections, and Representation, 2nd edn. Lincoln: Nebraska University Press.
Fish Steven M (2002) Islam and authoritarianism. World Politics 55(1): 4–37.
Franceschet Susan, Krook Mona Lena, Piscopo Jennifer M (2012) The Impact of Gender Quotas. New York: Oxford University Press.
Githens Marianne, Norris Pippa, Lovenduski Joni (1994) Different Roles, Different Voices: Women and Politics in the United States and Europe. New York: Harper Collins College.
Henig Ruth, Henig Simon (2001) Women and Political Power. New York: Routledge.
Hill David B (1981) Political culture and female representation. Journal of Politics 43(1): 159–68.
Hughes Melanie M, Paxton Pamela (2008) Continuous change, episodes, and critical periods: A framework for understanding women’s political representation over time. Politics and Gender 4(2): 233–64.
IDEA (2010) Electoral system design. Available at: http://www.idea.int/esd.
Inglehart Ronald (1990) Culture Shift in Advanced Industrialized Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart Ronald (1997) Modernization and Postmodernization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Inglehart Ronald, Norris Pippa (2003) Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Culture Change Around the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart Ronald, Welzel Christian (2005) Modernization, Cultural Change and Democracy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart Ronald, Norris Pippa, Welzel Christian (2002) Gender equality and democracy. Comparative Sociology 1(3–4): 321–46.
Inter-Parliamentary Union (2011) Women in national parliaments. Available at: http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world-arc.htm.
Iversen Torben, Rosenbluth Frances (2008) Work and power: The connection between female labor force participation and female political representation. Annual Review of Political Science 11(1): 479–95.
Jaquette Jane S, Wolchik Sharon L (1998) Women and Democracy: Latin America and Central and Eastern Europe. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Kapstein Ethan B, Converse Nathan (2008) Why democracies fail. Journal of Democracy 19(4): 57–68.
Karp Jeffrey, Banducci Susan (2008) Political efficacy and participation in twenty-seven democracies: How electoral systems shape political behaviour. British Journal of Political Science 38(2): 311–34.
Kenworthy Lane, Malami Mellissa (1999) Gender inequality in political representation: A worldwide comparative analysis. Social Forces 78(1): 235–68.
Krook Mona L (2009) Quotas for Women in Politics: Gender and Candidate Selection Reform Worldwide. New York: Oxford University Press.
Krook Mona L (2010a) Women’s representation in parliament: A qualitative comparative analysis. Political Studies 58(5): 886–908.
Krook Mona L (2010b) Why are fewer women than men elected? Gender and the dynamics of candidate selection. Political Studies Review 8(2): 155–68.
Leys Colin (2010) Politics and Change in Developing Countries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lovenduski Joni, Norris Pippa (eds) (1993) Gender and Party Politics. London: Sage.
McAllister Ian, Studlar Donley T (2002) Electoral systems and women’s representation: A long term perspective. Representation 39(1): 3–14.
Marshall Monty G, Gurr Ted R, Davenport Christian, et al. (2002) Polity IV, 1800–1999: Comments on Munck and Verkuilen. Comparative Political Studies 35(1): 40–45.
Matland Richard E (1998) Women’s representation in national legislatures: Developed and developing countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly 23(1): 107–29.
Molyneux Maxime (2002) Gender and the silence of social capital: Lessons from Latin America. Development and Change 33(2): 167–88.
Nechemias Carol (1994) Democratization and women’s access to legislative seats: The Soviet case, 1989–1991. Women and Politics 14(3): 1–18.
Norris Pippa (2006) The impact of electoral reform on women’s representation. Acta Politica 41(2): 197–213.
Paxton Pamela (1997) Women in national legislatures: A cross national analysis. Social Science Research 26(4): 442–64.
Paxton Pamela, Kunovich Sheri (2003) Women’s political representation: The importance of ideology. Social Forces 82(1): 87–114.
Polity IV (2011) Polity IV database. Available at: http://www.systemicpeace.org/polity/polity4.htm.
Praud Jocelyne (2012) Introduction: Gender parity and quotas in European politics. West European Politics 35(2): 286–300.
Quota Project (2010) Global database of quotas for women. Available at: http://www.quotaproject.org/uid/search.cfm#.
Rule Wilma (1987) Electoral systems, contextual factors and women’s opportunity for election to parliament in twenty-three democracies. Western Political Quarterly 40(3): 477–98.
Saint Germain Michelle, Metoyer Cynthia C (2008) Women Legislators in Central America Politics, Democracy and Policy. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Sawer Marian (2010) Women and elections. In: Lawrence LeDuc, Niemi Richard G, Norris Pippa (eds) Comparing Democracies 3: Elections and Voting in the 21st Century. London: Sage.
Sawer Marian, Tremblay Manon, Trimble Linda (eds) (2006) Representing Women in Parliament: A Comparative Study. London: Routledge.
Schwindt-Bayer Leslie (2010) Political Power and Women’s Representation in Latin America. New York: Oxford University Press.
Schwindt-Bayer Leslie, Mishler William (2005) An integrated model of women’s representation. Journal of Politics 67(2): 407–28.
Squires Judith (1996) Quotas for women: Fair representation? Parliamentary Affairs 49(1): 71–88.
Squires Judith (2008) The constitutive representation of gender: Extra-parliamentary representations of gender relations. Representation 44(2): 183–99.
Stockemer Daniel (2009) Women’s parliamentary representation: Are women more highly represented in (consolidated) democracies than in non-democracies? Contemporary Politics 15(4): 429–43.
Stockemer Daniel (2011) Women’s parliamentary representation in Africa: The impact of democracy and corruption on the number of female deputies in national parliaments. Political Studies 59(3): 693–712.
Thames Frank C, Williams Margaret S (2010) Incentives for personal votes and women’s representation in legislatures. Comparative Political Studies 43(12): 1575–600.
Tremblay Manon (2007) Democracy, representation, and women: A comparative analysis. Democratization 14(4): 533–53.
Tremblay Manon (ed.) (2012) Women and Legislative Representation: Electoral System, Parties and Sex Quotas. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tripp Ali M, Kang Alice (2008) The global impact of quotas: On the fast track to increased female legislative representation. Comparative Political Studies 41(3): 338–61.
Tripp Ali M, Isabel Casimiro, Joy Kwesiga, et al. (2008) African Women’s Movements: Changing Political Landscapes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
UNDP (2010) Human development reports. Available at: http://hdr.undp.org.
Verba Sidney, Nie Norman H (1972) Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. New York: Harper and Row.
Walsh Denise (2006) The liberal moment: Women and just debate in South Africa 1994–1996. Journal of Southern African Studies 32(1): 85–105.
Wängnerud Lena (2009) Women in parliaments: Descriptive and substantive representation. Annual Review of Political Science 12: 51–69.
Weiffen Brigitte (2004) The cultural-economic syndrome: Impediments to democracy in the Middle East. Comparative Sociology 3(3): 353–75.
White Halbert (1980) A heteroscedasticity-consistent covariance matrix estimator and a direct test for heteroscedasticity. Econometrica 48(4): 817–38.
Wolfinger Raymond E, Rosenstone Steven J (1980) Who Votes? New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
World Bank (2010) How we classify countries. Available at: http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications.
Yoon Mi Y (2001) Democratization and women’s legislative representation in sub-Saharan Africa. Democratization 8(2): 169–90.
Yoon Mi Y (2004) Explaining women’s legislative representation in sub-Saharan Africa. Legislative Studies Quarterly 24(3): 447–68.

Biographies

Daniel Stockemer is an Assistant Professor in Comparative Politics at the School of Political Studies at the University of Ottawa. His research focus is on political representation and political participation. He has published articles in Electoral Studies, Political Studies, Social Science Quarterly, and other scholarly journals.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.