Bribes and ballots: The impact of corruption on voter turnout in democracies
Abstract
While officials involved in graft, bribery, extortion, nepotism, or patronage typically like keeping their deeds private, the fact that corruption can have serious effects in democracies is no secret. Numerous scholars have brought to light the impact of corruption on a range of economic and political outcomes. One outcome that has received less attention, however, is voter turnout. Do high levels of corruption push electorates to avoid the polls or to turn out in larger numbers? Though of great consequence to the corruption and voter-turnout literature, few scholars in either area have tackled this question and none has done so in a broad sample of democracies. This article engages in this endeavor through an analysis of the broadest possible sample of democratic states. Through instrumental variable regression we find that as corruption increases the percentage of voters who go to the polls decreases.
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Appendix
| Country years | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Argentina | 1985 | 1987 | 1989 | 1991 | 1993 | 1995 | 1997 | 1999 | 2003 | 2005 | 2007 |
| Australia | 1984 | 1987 | 1990 | 1993 | 1996 | 1998 | 2001 | 2007 | |||
| Austria | 1986 | 1990 | 1994 | 1995 | 1999 | 2002 | 2006 | 2008 | |||
| Bahamas | 1987 | 1992 | 1997 | 2002 | 2007 | ||||||
| Bangladesh | 1991 | ||||||||||
| Belgium | 1985 | 1987 | 1991 | 1995 | 1999 | 2003 | 2007 | ||||
| Bolivia | 1985 | 1989 | 1993 | 1997 | 2002 | ||||||
| Botswana | 1994 | 1999 | 2004 | ||||||||
| Brazil | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | |||||||
| Bulgaria | 1991 | 1994 | 1997 | 2001 | 2005 | ||||||
| Canada | 1984 | 1988 | 1993 | 1997 | 2000 | 2004 | 2006 | ||||
| Chile | 1993 | 1997 | 2001 | 2005 | |||||||
| Columbia | 1986 | 1991 | |||||||||
| Costa Rica | 1986 | 1990 | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | |||||
| Croatia | 2000 | 2003 | 2007 | ||||||||
| Cyprus | 1985 | 1991 | 1996 | 2001 | 2006 | ||||||
| Czech Republic | 1990 | 1992 | 1996 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | |||||
| Denmark | 1984 | 1987 | 1988 | 1990 | 1994 | 1998 | 2001 | 2005 | 2007 | ||
| Dominica | 2000 | 2005 | |||||||||
| Dominican Republic | 1986 | 1990 | 2002 | 2006 | |||||||
| Ecuador | 1984 | 1986 | 1988 | 1990 | 1998 | ||||||
| El Salvador | 1985 | 1997 | 2000 | 2003 | 2006 | ||||||
| Estonia | 1999 | 2003 | 2007 | ||||||||
| Finland | 1987 | 1991 | 1995 | 1999 | 2003 | 2007 | |||||
| France | 1986 | 1988 | 1993 | 1997 | 2002 | 2007 | |||||
| Gambia | 1992 | ||||||||||
| Germany | 1987 | 1990 | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2005 | |||||
| Ghana | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | ||||||||
| Greece | 1985 | 1989 | 1993 | 1996 | 2000 | 2004 | 2007 | ||||
| Guyana | 1997 | 2001 | |||||||||
| Honduras | 1985 | 1989 | 1997 | ||||||||
| Hungary | 1990 | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | ||||||
| Iceland | 1987 | 1991 | 1995 | 1999 | 2003 | 2007 | |||||
| India | 1984 | 1989 | 1996 | 1998 | 1999 | 2004 | |||||
| Ireland | 1987 | 1989 | 1992 | 1997 | 2002 | 2007 | |||||
| Israel | 1984 | 1988 | 1992 | 1996 | 1999 | 2003 | 2006 | 2009 | |||
| Italy | 1987 | 1992 | 1994 | 1996 | 2001 | 2006 | |||||
| Jamaica | 1989 | 1993 | 2002 | 2007 | |||||||
| Japan | 1986 | 1990 | 1993 | 1996 | 2000 | 2003 | 2005 | 2007 | |||
| Latvia | 2002 | 2006 | |||||||||
| Lithuania | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | ||||||||
| Luxembourg | 1994 | 1999 | 2004 | ||||||||
| Malawi | 1994 | ||||||||||
| Malta | 1987 | 1992 | 1996 | 1998 | 2003 | 2008 | |||||
| Mexico | 2000 | 2003 | 2006 | ||||||||
| Moldova | 2005 | ||||||||||
| Mongolia | 2004 | ||||||||||
| Namibia | 1994 | 1999 | 2004 | ||||||||
| The Netherlands | 1986 | 1989 | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2003 | 2006 | ||||
| New Zealand | 1984 | 1987 | 1990 | 1993 | 1996 | 1999 | 2002 | 2005 | 2008 | ||
| Norway | 1985 | 1989 | 1993 | 1997 | 2001 | 2005 | |||||
| Panama | 1994 | 1999 | |||||||||
| Peru | 1985 | 2001 | 2006 | ||||||||
| Poland | 1991 | 1993 | 1997 | 2001 | 2005 | 2007 | |||||
| Portugal | 1985 | 1987 | 1991 | 1995 | 1999 | 2002 | 2005 | ||||
| Romania | 1996 | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | |||||||
| Slovakia | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | |||||||
| Slovenia | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | ||||||||
| South Africa | 1994 | 1999 | 2004 | ||||||||
| South Korea | 1988 | 1992 | 1996 | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | |||||
| Spain | 1986 | 1989 | 1993 | 1996 | 2000 | 2004 | 2008 | ||||
| Suriname | 2000 | 2005 | |||||||||
| Sweden | 1985 | 1988 | 1991 | 1994 | 1998 | 2002 | 2006 | ||||
| Switzerland | 1987 | 1991 | 1995 | 1999 | 2003 | 2007 | |||||
| Thailand | 2001 | ||||||||||
| Trinidad Tobago | 1986 | 1991 | 1995 | 2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2007 | ||||
| Turkey | 1987 | 1991 | |||||||||
| United Kingdom | 1987 | 1992 | 1997 | 2001 | 2005 | ||||||
| Uruguay | 1989 | 1994 | 1999 | 2004 | |||||||
| USA | 1984 | 1986 | 1988 | 1990 | 1992 | 1994 | 1996 | 1998 | 2000 | 2002 | 2004 |
| Venezuela | 1988 | 1998 | |||||||||
| Zambia | 1991 | ||||||||||
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Biographies
Daniel Stockemer is Assistant Professor of Comparative Politics at the University of Ottawa. His research interests include electoral politics, social movements, political representation, and political methodology. He has recently published in peer-reviewed journals such as Political Studies, French Politics, and The Social Science Journal.
Bernadette LaMontagne is a PhD candidate in Political Science at the University of Connecticut. She is interested in social policy, political participation, and right-wing extremism. Her work has appeared in, among others, International Politics and The Canadian Journal of Development Studies.
Lyle Scruggs is Associate Professor in Political Science at the University of Connecticut. His research interests include welfare states, turnout, and political methodology. He has published articles in some of the leading journals worldwide, such as the American Journal of Political Science, World Politics, and the British Journal of Political Science.
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Article first published online: April 24, 2012
Issue published: January 2013
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